Environmental Reports

Environmental Reports

So what does the scorecard look like for aviation based entities? Peruse the following environmental reports for Boeing and Airbus to gain insight into the achievements and priorities for the two leading aircraft manufacturers.

Boeing: Build Something Cleaner (PDF)

Airbus: Minimising Environmental Impact
 

 

PPL (A) Approach and Landing- LESSON 5

Approach and Landing

A normal approach and landing involves the use of procedures

for what is considered a normal situation; that is, when engine

power is available, the wind is light, or the final approach is

made directly into the wind, the final approach path has no

obstacles and the landing surface is firm and of ample length

to gradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selected landing

point is normally beyond the runway’s approach threshold

but within the first 1/3 portion of the runway.

The factors involved and the procedures described for the

normal approach and landing also have applications to the

other-than-normal approaches and landings and are discussed

later in this chapter. This being the case, the principles of

normal operations are explained first and must be understood

before proceeding to the more complex operations. To help

the pilot better understand the factors that influence judgment

and procedures, the last part of the approach pattern and the

actual landing is divided into five phases:

Base Leg

The placement of the base leg is one of the more important

judgments made by the pilot in any landing approach.

The pilot must accurately judge the altitude

and distance from which a gradual, stabilized descent results

in landing at the desired spot. The distance depends on the

altitude of the base leg, the effect of wind, and the amount

of wing flaps used. When there is a strong wind on final

approach or the flaps are used to produce a steep angle

of descent, the base leg must be positioned closer to the

approach end of the runway than would be required with a

light wind or no flaps. Normally, the landing gear is extended

and the before-landing check completed prior to reaching

the base leg.

 Final Approach

After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the

longitudinal axis of the airplane is aligned with the centerline

of the runway or landing surface so that drift (if any) is

recognized immediately. On a normal approach, with no

wind drift, the longitudinal axis is kept aligned with the

runway centerline throughout the approach and landing. (The

proper way to correct for a crosswind is explained under the

section, Crosswind Approach and Landing. For now, only

an approach and landing where the wind is straight down the

runway are discussed.)

A stabilized descent angle is controlled throughout the

approach so that the airplane lands in the center of the first

third of the runway. The descent angle is affected by all four

fundamental forces that act on an airplane (lift, drag, thrust,

and weight). If all the forces are constant, the descent angle

is constant in a no-wind condition. The pilot controls these

forces by adjusting the airspeed, attitude, power, and drag

(flaps or forward slip). The wind also plays a prominent part

in the gliding distance over the ground; the

pilot does not have control over the wind but corrects for

its effect on the airplane’s descent by appropriate pitch and

power adjustments.

 Round Out (Flare)

The round out is a slow, smooth transition from a normal

approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually rounding

out the flightpath to one that is parallel with, and within a

very few inches above, the runway. When the airplane, in a

normal descent, approaches within what appears to be 10 to

20 feet above the ground, the round out or flare is started.

This is a continuous process until the airplane touches down

on the ground.

As the airplane reaches a height above the ground where a

change into the proper landing attitude can be made, back-

elevator pressure is gradually applied to slowly increase the

pitch attitude and angle of attack (AOA).

This causes the airplane’s nose to gradually rise toward the desired

landing attitude. The AOA is increased at a rate that allows the

airplane to continue settling slowly as forward speed decreases.

When the AOA is increased, the lift is momentarily increased

and this decreases the rate of descent. Since power normally

is reduced to idle during the round out, the airspeed also

gradually decreases. This causes lift to decrease again and

necessitates raising the nose and further increasing the AOA.

During the round out, the airspeed is decreased to touchdown

speed while the lift is controlled so the airplane settles gently

onto the landing surface. The round out is executed at a rate

that the proper landing attitude and the proper touchdown

airspeed are attained simultaneously just as the wheels

contact the landing surface.

 Touchdown

The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane onto the

landing surface. The round out and touchdown are normally

made with the engine idling and the airplane at minimum

controllable airspeed so that the airplane touches down on

the main gear at approximately stalling speed. As the airplane

settles, the proper landing attitude is attained by application

of whatever back-elevator pressure is necessary.

 Some pilots try to force or fly the airplane onto the ground

without establishing the proper landing attitude. The airplane

should never be flown on the runway with excessive speed.

A common technique to making a smooth touchdown is to

actually focus on holding the wheels of the aircraft a few

inches off the ground as long as possible using the elevators

while the power is smoothly reduced to idle. In most cases,

when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the ground, the

airplane is still settling too fast for a gentle touchdown;

therefore, this descent must be retarded by increasing back-

elevator pressure. Since the airplane is already close to

its stalling speed and is settling, this added back-elevator

pressure only slows the settling instead of stopping it. At

the same time, it results in the airplane touching the ground

in the proper landing attitude and the main wheels touching

down first so that little or no weight is on the nose wheel. 

After-Landing Roll

The landing process must never be considered complete until

the airplane decelerates to the normal taxi speed during the

landing roll or has been brought to a complete stop when clear

of the landing area. Numerous accidents occur as a result

of pilots abandoning their vigilance and failing to maintain

positive control after getting the airplane on the ground.

 A pilot must be alert for directional control difficulties

immediately upon and after touchdown due to the ground

friction on the wheels. Loss of directional control may lead

to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground, or

a ground loop. The combination of centrifugal force acting

on the center of gravity (CG) and ground friction of the

main wheels resisting it during the ground loop may cause

the airplane to tip or lean enough for the outside wingtip to

contact the ground. This imposes a sideward force that could

collapse the landing gear.

 The rudder serves the same purpose on the ground as it

does in the air—it controls the yawing of the airplane. The

effectiveness of the rudder is dependent on the airflow, which

depends on the speed of the airplane. As the speed decreases

and the nose wheel has been lowered to the ground, the

steerable nose provides more positive directional control.

 The brakes of an airplane serve the same primary purpose as

the brakes of an automobile—to reduce speed on the ground.

In airplanes, they are also used as an aid in directional control

when more positive control is required than could be obtained

with rudder or nose wheel steering alone.

PPL (A) Rectangular Course- LESSON 4

Rectangular Course

A principle ground reference maneuver is the rectangular

course. The rectangular course is a training

maneuver in which the airplane maintains an equal distance

from all sides of the selected rectangular references. The

maneuver is accomplished to replicate the airport traffic

pattern that an airplane typically maneuvers while landing.

While performing the rectangular course maneuver, the pilot

should maintain a constant altitude, airspeed, and distance

from the ground references. The maneuver assists the pilot

in practicing the following:

•Maintaining a specific relationship between the

airplane and the ground.

•Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-

based references, manipulating the flight controls,

and scanning for outside hazards and instrument

indications.

•Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for

groundspeed changes in order to maintain constant

radius turns.

•Rolling out from a turn with the required wind

correction angle to compensate for any drift cause by

the wind.

•Establishing and correcting the wind correction angle

in order to maintain the track over the ground.

•Preparing the pilot for the airport traffic pattern and

subsequent landing pattern practice.

First, a square, rectangular field, or an area with suitable

ground references on all four sides, as previously mentioned

should be selected consistent with safe practices. The

airplane should be flown parallel to and at an equal distance

between one-half to three-fourths of a mile away from

the field boundaries or selected ground references. The

flightpath should be positioned outside the field boundaries

or selected ground references so that the references may be

easily observed from either pilot seat. It is not practicable

to fly directly above the field boundaries or selected

ground references. The pilot should avoid flying close to

the references, as this will require the pilot to turn using

very steep bank angles, thereby increasing aerodynamic

load factor and the airplane’s stall speed, especially in the

downwind to crosswind turn.

The entry into the maneuver should be accomplished

downwind. This places the wind on the tail of the airplane

and results in an increased groundspeed. There should be no

wind correction angle if the wind is directly on the tail of

the airplane; however, a real-world situation results in some

drift correction. The turn from the downwind leg onto the

base leg is entered with a relatively steep bank angle. The

pilot should roll the airplane into a steep bank with rapid, but

not excessive, coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. As

the airplane turns onto the following base leg, the tailwind

lessens and becomes a crosswind; the bank angle is reduced

gradually with coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. The

pilot should be prepared for the lateral drift and compensate

by turning more than 90° angling toward the inside of the

rectangular course.

The next leg is where the airplane turns from a base leg

position to the upwind leg. Ideally, the wind is directly on

the nose of the airplane resulting in a direct headwind and

decreased groundspeed; however, a real-world situation

results in some drift correction. The pilot should roll the

airplane into a medium banked turn with coordinated aileron

and rudder pressures. As the airplane turns onto the upwind

leg, the crosswind lessens and becomes a headwind, and the

bank angle is gradually reduced with coordinated aileron and

rudder pressures. Because the pilot was angled into the wind

on the base leg, the turn to the upwind leg is less than 90°.

The next leg is where the airplane turns from an upwind leg

position to the crosswind leg. The pilot should slowly roll

the airplane into a shallow-banked turn, as the developing

crosswind drifts the airplane into the inside of the rectangular

course with coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. As the

airplane turns onto the crosswind leg, the headwind lessens

and becomes a crosswind. As the turn nears completion, the

bank angle is reduced with coordinated aileron and rudder

pressures. To compensate for the crosswind, the pilot must

angle into the wind, toward the outside of the rectangular

course, which requires the turn to be less than 90°.

The final turn is back to the downwind leg, which requires

a medium-banked angle and a turn greater than 90°. The

groundspeed will be increasing as the turn progresses and

the bank should be held and then rolled out in a rapid, but

not excessive, manner using coordinated aileron and rudder

pressures.

PPL (A) Climbs and Descents- LESSON 3

Climbs and Climbing Turns

When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from

level flight to a climb attitude. In a climb, weight no longer

acts in a direction solely perpendicular to the flightpath. When

an airplane enters a climb, excess lift must be developed to

overcome the weight or gravity. This requirement to develop

more lift results in more induced drag, which either results

in decreased airspeed and/or an increased power setting to

maintain a minimum airspeed in the climb. An airplane can

only sustain a climb when there is sufficient thrust to offset

increased drag; therefore, climb rate is limited by the excess

thrust available.

The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural

horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that

produce the following types of climb:

-Normal climb: performed at an airspeed recommended by

the airplane manufacturer. Normal climb speed is generally

higher than the airplane’s best rate of climb. The additional

airspeed provides for better engine cooling, greater control

authority, and better visibility over the nose of the airplane.

Normal climb is sometimes referred to as cruise climb.

Best rate of climb (VY):produces the most altitude gained

over a given amount of time. This airspeed is typically used

when initially departing a runway without obstructions until it

is safe to transition to a normal or cruise climb configuration.

Best angle of climb (VX):performed at an airspeed that

produces the most altitude gain over a given horizontal

distance. The best angle of climb results in a steeper climb,

although the airplane takes more time to reach the same

altitude than it would at best rate of climb airspeed. The best

angle of climb is used to clear obstacles, such as a strand of

trees, after takeoff. 

It should be noted that as altitude increases, the airspeed

for best angle of climb increases and the airspeed for best

rate of climb decreases

As the airspeed decreases during the climb’s establishment,

the airplane’s pitch attitude tends to lower unless the pilot

increases the elevator flight control pressure. Nose-up elevator

trim should be used so that the pitch attitude can be maintained

without the pilot holding back elevator pressure. Throughout

the climb, since the power should be fixed at the climb power

setting, airspeed is controlled by the use of elevator pressure.

The pitch attitude to the natural horizon determines if the

pitch attitude is correct and should be cross-checked to the

flight instruments to verify climb performance. 

Descents and Descending Turns

When an airplane enters a descent, it changes its flightpath

from level flight to a descent attitude.

In a descent, weight no longer acts solely perpendicular to the

flightpath. Since induced drag is decreased as lift is reduced in

order to descend, excess thrust will provide higher airspeeds.

The weight/gravity force is about the same. This causes an

increase in total thrust and a power reduction is required to

balance the forces if airspeed is to be maintained.

The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural

horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that

produce the following types of descents:

Partial power descent: the normal method of losing altitude

is to descend with partial power. This is often termed

cruise or en route descent. The airspeed and power setting

recommended by the AFM/POH for prolonged descent

should be used. The target descent rate should be 500 fpm.

The desired airspeed, pitch attitude, and power combination

should be preselected and kept constant.

Descent at minimum safe airspeed: a nose-high, power-

assisted descent condition principally used for clearing

obstacles during a landing approach to a short runway.

Some characteristics of the minimum safe airspeed descent are a

steeper-than-normal descent angle, and the excessive power

that may be required to produce acceleration at low airspeed

should “mushing” and/or an excessive rate of descent be

allowed to develop.

Emergency descent: some airplanes have a specific

procedure for rapidly losing altitude. The AFM/POH specifies

the procedure. In general, emergency descent procedures are

high drag, high airspeed procedures requiring a specific

airplane configuration (such as power to idle, propellers

forward, landing gear extended, and flaps retracted) and a

specific emergency descent airspeed. Emergency descent

maneuvers often include turns.

PPL (A) Basic Flight Maneuvers- LESSON 2

Integrated Flight Instruction

As the beginner pilot develops a competent skill in visual

reference flying, the flight instructor should further develop

the beginner pilot’s effectiveness through the use of

integrated flight instruction; however, it is important that the

beginner pilot’s visual skills be sufficiently developed for

long-term, safe, and effective aircraft control.

The basic elements of integrated flight instruction are as

follows:

•The pilot visually controls the airplane’s

attitude inreference outside to the natural horizon. At least 90

percent of the pilot’s attention should be devoted to

outside visual references and scanning for airborne

traffic. The process of visually evaluating pitch and

bank attitude is nearly an imperceptible continuous

stream of attitude information. If the attitude is found

to be other than desired, the pilot should make precise,

smooth, and accurate flight control corrections to

return the airplane to the desired attitude. Continuous

visual checks of the outside references and immediate

corrections made by the pilot minimize the chance

for the airplane to deviate from the desired heading,

altitude, and flightpath.

•The airplane’s attitude is validated by referring to

flight instruments and confirming performance. If

the flight instruments display that the airplane’s

performance is in need of correction, the required

correction must be determined and then precisely,

smoothly, and accurately applied with reference

to the natural horizon. The airplane’s attitude and

performance are then rechecked by referring to flight

instruments. The pilot then maintains the corrected

attitude by reference to the natural horizon.

•The pilot should monitor the airplane’s performance

by making quick snap-shots of the flight instruments.

No more than 10 percent of the pilot’s attention should

be inside the cockpit. The pilot must develop the skill

to quickly focus on the appropriate flight instruments

and then immediately return to the visual outside

references to control the airplane’s attitude

The pilot should become familiar with the relationship

between outside visual references to the natural horizon and

the corresponding flight instrument indications. For example,

a pitch attitude adjustment may require a movement of the

pilot’s reference point of several inches in relation to the

natural horizon but correspond to a seemingly insignificant

movement of the reference bar on the airplane’s attitude

indicator.

Straight-and-Level Flight

Straight-and-level flight is flight in which heading and altitude

are constantly maintained. The four fundamentals are in

essence a derivation of straight-and-level flight. As such, the

need to form proper and effective skills in flying straight and

level should not be understated. Precise mastery of straight-

and-level flight is the result of repetition and effective practice.

Perfection in straight-and-level flight comes only as a result of

the pilot understanding the effect and use of the flight controls,

properly using the visual outside references, and the utilization

of snap-shots from the flight instruments in a continuous loop

of information gathering. A pilot must make effective, timely,

and proportional corrections for deviations in the airplane’s

direction and altitude from unintentional slight turns, descents,

and climbs to master straight-and-level flight.

 Straight-and-level flight is a matter of consciously fixing the

relationship of a reference point on the airplane in relation

to the natural horizon.

The establishment of

reference points should be initiated on the ground as the

reference points depends on the pilot’s seating position,

height, and manner of sitting. It is important that the pilot sit

in a normal manner with the seat position adjusted, which

allows for the pilot to see adequately over the instrument

panel while being able to fully depress the rudder pedals to

their maximum forward position without straining or reaching. 

 Straight Flight

Maintaining a constant direction or heading is accomplished

by visually checking the lateral level relationship of the

airplane’s wingtips to the natural horizon. Depending on

whether the airplane is a high wing or low wing, both wingtips

should be level and equally above or below the natural horizon.

Any necessary bank corrections are made with the pilot’s

coordinated use of ailerons and rudder.

The pilot should understand that anytime the wings are banked,

the airplane turns. The objective of straight flight is to detect

small deviations as soon as they occur, thereby necessitating

only minor flight control corrections. The bank attitude

information can also be obtained from a quick scan of the

attitude indicator (which shows the position of the airplane’s

wings relative to the horizon) and the heading indicator (which

indicates whether flight control pressure is necessary to change

the bank attitude to return to straight flight). 

 

PPL (A) Basic Flight Maneuvers- LESSON 1

a

n

The Four Fundamentals

To master any subject, one must first master the fundamentals.

An attempt to move on to advanced maneuvers prior to

mastering the four fundamentals hinders the learning process.

To be a competent pilot first requires that the pilot is skilled in

the basics of fundamental airmanship. This requires mastery of

the four basic flight maneuvers upon which all flying tasks are

based:

straight-and-level flight,

turns,

climbs, and

descents.

Consider the following: a takeoff is a combination of straight-

and-level and a climb, turning on course to the first navigation

fix after departure is a climb and a turn, and the landing at

the destination is a combination of airplane ground handling,

acceleration, pitch and a climb. 

Effect and Use of the Flight Controls

The airplane flies in an environment that allows it to travel

up and down as well as left and right. That up or down can

be relative to the flight conditions. If the airplane is right

side up relative to the horizon, forward control stick or wheel

(elevator control) movement will result in a loss of altitude.

If the same airplane is upside down relative to the horizon

that same forward control movement will result in a gain

of altitude. In any regard, that forward movement of the

elevator control will always move the airplane in the same

direction relative to the pilot’s perspective. Therefore, the

airplane controls always function the same relative to the

pilot. Depending on the airplane’s orientation to the Earth,

the same control actions may result in different movements

of the airplane.

With the pilot’s hand:

•When pulling

the elevator pitch control toward the

pilot, which is an aft movement of the aileron and

elevator controls, control stick, or side stick controller

(referred to as adding back pressure), the airplane’s

nose will rotate backwards relative to the pilot around

the pitch (lateral) axis of the airplane. Think of this

movement from the pilot’s feet to the pilot’s head

•When pushing the elevator pitch control toward the

instrument panel, which is the forward movement of the

aileron and elevator controls, control stick, or side stick

controller (referred to as increasing forward pressure),

the airplane rotates the nose forward relative to the

pilot around the pitch axis of the airplane. Think of this

movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s feet.

•When right pressure is applied to the aileron control,

which is a clockwise rotation of aileron and elevator

controls or the right deflection of the control stick or

side stick controller, the airplane’s right wing banks

(rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this

movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s right hip.

•When left pressure is applied to the aileron control,

which is a counterclockwise rotation of aileron and

elevator controls or the left deflection of the control

stick or side stick controller, the airplane’s left wing

banks (rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this

movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s left hip.

With the pilot’s feet:

•Whenforward pressure is applied to the right rudder

pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right

in relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from

the pilot’s left shoulder to the pilot’s right shoulder.

•When forward pressure is applied to the left rudder

pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left in

relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from the

pilot’s right shoulder to the pilot’s left shoulder.

While in flight, the flight controls have a resistance to a pilot’s

movement due to the airflow over the airplane’s control

surfaces, and the control surfaces remain in a fixed position

as long as all forces acting upon them remain balanced. The

amount of force that the passing airflow exerts on a control

surface is governed by the airspeed and the degree that

the surface is moved out of its streamlined position. This

resistance increases as airspeed increases and decreases as

airspeed decreases. While the airflow over the control surfaces

changes during various flight maneuvers, it is not the amount

of control surface movement that is important. What is

important, is that the pilot maneuvers the airplane by applying

sufficient flight control pressures to obtain the desired result.

The pitch and roll flight controls (aileron and elevator

controls, stick, or side-stick control) should be held lightly

with the fingers and not grabbed or squeezed by the hand.

When flight control pressure is applied to change a control

surface position, pressure should only be exerted on the

aileron and elevator controls with the fingers. This is an

important concept and habit to learn which benefits the pilot

as they progress to greater challenges such as instrument

flying. A common error with beginning pilots is that they

grab the aileron and elevator controls with a closed palm

with such force that the sensitive feeling is lost. This must

be avoided as it prevents the development of “feel,” which

is an important aspect of airplane control.

The pilot’s feet should rest comfortably against the rudder

pedals. Both heels should support the weight of the feet

on the cockpit floor with the ball of each foot touching the

individual rudder pedals. The legs and feet should be relaxed.

When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be applied

smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball of one foot.

Since the rudder pedals are interconnected through springs

or a direct mechanical linkage and act in opposite directions,

when pressure is applied to one rudder pedal, foot pressure

on the opposite rudder pedal must be relaxed proportionately.

Remember, the ball of each foot must rest comfortably on the

rudder pedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt.